afrikaans anglian dialects anglo-frisian languages crimean gothic danish language dialect dutch language early modern english early scots east germanic languages english language faroese language fingalian frisian languages german language germanic a-mutation germanic languages germanic philology germanic spirant law germanic strong verb germanic substrate hypothesis germanic umlaut germanic verb germanic weak verb gothic language grammatischer wechsel great britain great vowel shift high german consonant shift history of danish history of german history of swedish history of the english language history of the icelandic language history of the scots language icelandic language indo-european ablaut indo-european languages ingvaeonic ingvaeonic nasal spirant law late west saxon list of dialects of the english language lombardic language middle dutch middle english middle high german middle low german middle scots midlands english new englishes norn language north germanic languages northern english northwest germanic norwegian language old dutch old english language old frisian old gutnish old high german old norse philology phonological history of the english language preterite-present verb proto-germanic proto-norse scots language southern english english standard english swedish language vandalic language west germanic gemination west germanic languages yiddish language yola language