alder anemone apical dominance basal shoot beaver beech biodiversity birch bluebell bodging cattle charcoal cinnamon coal coarse woody debris conservation in the united kingdom east sussex england eucalyptus fence forest product great britain hampshire hardwood hazel henry viii of england herbivory hornbeam iron kent nightingale nightjar oak pollarding primrose shoot smelting somerset statute sweet track thatching tilia wattle and daub willow woodland management world war ii