adenine alanine amino acid aminoacyl trna synthetase aptamer archaea arginine asparagine bacteria base pair bit cell-free system codon usage bias computer science cysteine cytosine dna deoxyribose digital object identifier evolution frameshift mutation francis crick gene genome george gamow glutamic acid glutamine glycine guanine guanosine triphosphate har gobind khorana hemoglobin heterozygote advantage histidine human mitochondrial genetics in vivo initiation factor inosine isoleucine leucine lysine malaria maurice wilkins messenger rna methionine mitochondrion mutation mycoplasma national institutes of health natural selection nobel prize nucleotide organism peptide phenotype phenylalanine phosphate plasmodium point mutation proline protein purine pyrimidine pyrrolysine rna release factor ribose ribosome rosalind franklin selenocysteine serine severo ochoa sickle-cell disease silent mutation start codon stop codon thalassemia threonine thymine transfer rna transversion tryptophan tyrosine uracil valine wobble base pair zygosity