activity alcohol animal berlin brain carl ludwig censorship cerebral chemistry christian claude bernard committee conservatism electrophysiology emigration emil du bois-reymond equation europe experiment felix hoppe-seyler hermann von helmholtz honorary human ilya ilyich mechnikov ilya repin immunology intoxication ivan pavlov kiev leipzig materialism medicine military engineer morality moscow moscow medical academy nervous system neurophysiology neuroscience nizhny novgorod oblast nobel prize odessa paris physiology politics of russia psychology russia russian academy of sciences russian language saint petersburg solubility ulyanovsk vienna zoology