abu muhammad asem al-maqdisi al-andalus al-farabi al-ghazali al-kindi albertus magnus analogy arabic language argument aristotle averroes averroism avicenna avicennism category de interpretatione debate deductive reasoning dialectic discovery early islamic philosophy egypt empiricism epistemology experience experiment fakhr al-din al-razi fiqh fuzzy logic fuzzy set grammar greek philosophy hadith hayy ibn yaqdhan hellenistic philosophy history of iran history of logic hossein nasr hypothetical syllogism ibn hazm ibn taymiyyah ibn al-nafis idea ijtihad illuminationist philosophy impossibility inductive reasoning inference introspection islam islamic golden age islamic philosophy islamic theology isnad john stuart mill kalam levant logic logical possibility lotfi asker zadeh maghreb metaphor metaphysics middle ages mind modal logic muhammad iqbal muslim necessity nicholas rescher number observation oliver leaman organon oxford university press perception poetics prior analytics proposition propositional calculus qiyas reality reason relation research revelation rhetoric risk factor routledge routledge encyclopedia of philosophy scientific citation scientific method sense shahab al-din suhrawardi sharia state university of new york press syllogism temporal logic the book of healing the canon of medicine the incoherence of the philosophers the reconstruction of religious thought in islam theology truth unani university of notre dame