afrikaans alps anglic languages anglo-saxons crimean gothic danish language dutch language east germanic languages english language faroese language frisian languages german language germanic a-mutation germanic languages germanic philology germanic spirant law germanic strong verb germanic substrate hypothesis germanic umlaut germanic verb germanic weak verb gothic language grammatischer wechsel great vowel shift greenlandic norse high german consonant shift history of danish history of german history of swedish history of the english language history of the icelandic language history of the scots language icelandic language indo-european ablaut ingvaeonic ingvaeonic nasal spirant law lexis loanword lombardic language middle dutch middle english middle high german middle low german norn language north germanic languages norwegian language old dutch old english old frankish old frisian old gutnish old high german old norse phonological history of the english language phonology preterite preterite-present verb proto-germanic proto-norse proto-language reduplication scots language south germanic swedish language vandalic language west germanic gemination west germanic languages word formation yiddish language