afrikaans anglic languages crimean gothic danish language dutch language east germanic languages english language faroese language frisian languages german language germanic a-mutation germanic languages germanic philology germanic spirant law germanic strong verb germanic substrate hypothesis germanic umlaut germanic verb germanic weak verb gothic language grammatischer wechsel great vowel shift greek language greenlandic norse high german consonant shift historical linguistics history of danish history of german history of swedish history of the english language history of the icelandic language history of the scots language icelandic language indo-european ablaut infinitive ingvaeonic ingvaeonic nasal spirant law lombardic language middle dutch middle english middle high german middle low german modal verb norn language north germanic languages northwest germanic norwegian language old dutch old english old frankish old frisian old gutnish old high german old norse phonological history of the english language present tense preterite proto-germanic proto-indo-european proto-indo-european language proto-norse scots language supine swedish language vandalic language vedic west germanic gemination west germanic languages yiddish language