antonin scalia appellate court arlen specter attractive nuisance doctrine australia binding precedent calculus of negligence canada case law caveat emptor clarence thomas common law contra proferentem democracy duty of care eggshell skull en banc fair use first-sale doctrine france germany good-faith exception holding ignorantia juris non excusat judge judicial functions of the house of lords jurisdiction jurisprudence constante legislature list of legal doctrines living tree doctrine mens rea mischief rule necessary-and-proper clause new zealand odious debt originalism pakistan persuasive precedent plain view doctrine practice statement precedent proximate cause ratio decidendi res ipsa loquitur richard posner samuel alito sovereign immunity standard of care statute statutory interpretation statutory law strom thurmond supreme court trial court unclean hands united states united states constitution united states court of appeals for the ninth circuit united states court of appeals vicarious liability