afghan turkestan alexander the great amsterdam ancient greece ancient rome arab azerbaijan bactria battle of loulan baymirza hayit caliphate central asia chagatai chagatai khanate china chinese postal map romanization chinese language crimea darmstadt east turkestan english language fur genghis khan greater khorasan greeks hazrat-e turkestan henry yule history of central asia huns iran iranian peoples iron istanbul kazakhs kazakhstan khazars kyrgyz kyrgyzstan mongols oghuz turks pamir mountains persian empire pinyin pliny the elder protectorate of the western regions ptolemy qing dynasty republic of china russia russian empire russian turkestan scythia seres silk silk road sogdiana soviet union svat soucek tajikistan tajiks tatarstan tian shan trade transoxiana turan turkestan autonomous soviet socialist republic turkey turkic peoples turkmenistan ukraine uyghur people uzbekistan uzbeks vasily bartold western regions xinjiang zeki velidi togan